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Conteúdo (article):

Perceptions of home cooking: an integrative review of qualitative studies

Ana Claudia Mazzonetto, MSc.
Núcleo de Pesquisa de Nutrição em Produção de Refeições
Federal University of Santa Catarina
Telephone: +55 48 3721-2782
Email address: ac.mazzonetto@gmail.com

Moira Dean, PhD.
Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences
Queen’s University Belfast, UK
Telephone: +44 (0)28 9097 6561
Email address: moira.dean@qub.ac.uk

Giovanna Medeiros Rataichesck Fiates, PhD.
Núcleo de Pesquisa de Nutrição em Produção de Refeições
Federal University of Santa Catarina
Telephone: +55 48 3721-2782
Email address: giovanna.fiates@ufsc.br

Percepções de indivíduos sobre o ato de cozinhar no ambiente doméstico: revisão integrativa de estudos qualitativos

Resumo
O objetivo da presente revisão integrativa foi identificar estudos qualitativos que abordam a percepção de indivíduos sobre o ato de cozinhar no ambiente doméstico. Realizou-se busca sistemática em português e inglês nas bases de dados Scopus e SciELO, sem limite de data e idioma. Foram identificados e selecionados 26 artigos publicados entre os anos de 2004 e 2017 que exploraram como objetivo principal, ou como resultado secundário, perspectivas de indivíduos sobre o ato de cozinhar. Mais da metade (n = 17) foi realizada em países de língua inglesa. Os estudos foram conduzidos com homens e mulheres, adultos e idosos, residentes em área rural e urbana de países orientais e ocidentais, desenvolvidos e em desenvolvimento. Análise temática dos estudos revelou que os indivíduos planejam e executam o ato de cozinhar de formas variadas e que cozinhar também é entendido de forma ampla e diversa. As motivações para cozinhar envolveram questões cognitivas, práticas, afetivas e emocionais. Diferentes influencias foram identificadas. A presença (ou ausência) de modelo familiar, morar sozinho, ter ou não confiança e habilidade para cozinhar aparecem como facilitadores e barreiras. O reconhecimento da heterogeneidade dos fatores que influenciam o ato de cozinhar podem informar a criação e o desenvolvimento de orientações e intervenções com a finalidade de estimulá-lo.
Palavras-chave: Culinária, Pesquisa Qualitativa, Revisão, Cozinhar

Perceptions of home cooking: an integrative review of qualitative studies

Abstract
This study aimed to review qualitative studies on perceptions of home cooking. A systematic search was conducted in Scopus and SciELO databases using English and Portuguese terms related to home cooking, without date or language restrictions. Twenty-six articles, published between 2004 and 2017, investigated, whether as a primary objective or as a secondary finding, the perceptions of individuals on home cooking. More than half of the studies (n = 17) were conducted in English-speaking countries. Study participants included women and men, adults and seniors as well as residents of urban and rural areas, Eastern and Western countries, and developing and developed nations. Thematic analysis showed that home cooking has different interpretations and meanings in diverse contexts and revealed differences in how individuals plan and cook their meals at home. Cognitive, practical, affective, and emotional factors are the major motivators to home meal preparation. Having a cooking role model in the family, cooking confidence and skills, and living alone were reported as facilitators of home cooking. A better understanding of the heterogeneity of perceptions and meanings of home cooking can contribute to the development of effective and culturally appropriate interventions for stimulating healthy cooking habits.
Key words: Cooking, Meal, Qualitative Research, Review

Introduction

The eating habits of Western urban societies have been constantly changing. Since the mid-20th century, individuals have devoted less time to home meal preparation1. This reduction in home cooking is believed to be associated with the increasing unhealthy food choices made by modern society2.
Strategies aimed at encouraging home cooking and increasing the nutritional quality of diets are gaining visibility. In Brazil, two important guidelines were published to encourage healthy eating habits. The Food and Nutrition Education Guidelines for Public Policies3 states that home cooking promotes personal emancipation, develops autonomy, and contributes to sensory, cognitive, and social growth. The Food Guide for the Brazilian Population is a comprehensive guide on healthy eating. It recommends the use of raw and minimally processed foods as opposed to ultra-processed foods. Generally, raw and minimally processed foods need to be selected, pre-prepared, seasoned, cooked, and/or combined with other foods4. To follow these important health recommendations, individuals must resort to cooking. Schools and communities around the world have taken to strategies aimed at teaching cooking skills and promoting cooking habits5.
Research on cooking (and all its complexities), however, is still incipient6. Short15, 16 highlighted that there is no clear relationship between knowing how to cook and cooking at home7, 87, 87, 87, 87, 8. Meah and Watson9 argued that it is necessary to understand the processes involved in meal preparation and the dynamics of developing the habit of cooking. Cooking must be understood as a complex phenomenon comprised of many subtleties. Without this awareness, researchers and policy-makers may develop simplistic, unrealistic initiatives10.

The qualitative approach is recommended to understand a given phenomenon and the perception of individuals about the topic, including their feelings, thoughts, and experiences11. The aim of this study was to perform a systematic review of qualitative studies on home cooking.

Methods

The qualitative systematic review was conducted in the following steps: formulation of the guiding question, identification of inclusion criteria, data collection and treatment, data analysis, discussion of results, and critical review12.
The guiding question was: What do qualitative studies reveal about individuals’ perceptions of home cooking? Search terms were derived from Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), Health Sciences Descriptors (DeCS), and articles identified in a preliminary search of the literature (Table 1). The search was carried out on January 9, 2017, and updated on May 18, 2018, using Scopus and SciELO, without date or language restrictions. Scopus was chosen because it is the largest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature. SciELO was used to increase coverage of Brazilian studies.

Table 1

The Scopus database was searched for terms in English within the fields title, abstract, and keywords using two categories of search terms, one related to home cooking and the other to qualitative research. Terms related to cooking equipment and environmental sustainability (e.g., pollution, cookstoves, stoves, oil, fuel, gas, food waste, air quality, and air) were excluded using the Boolean operator AND NOT. The SciELO database was searched for terms in Portuguese and English. Because of the small number of records identified, it was not necessary to use two categories of search words, and only terms related to home cooking were used.
Inclusion criteria were full-text articles published in peer-reviewed journals and adopting a qualitative approach to investigate home meal preparation. In total, 476 articles were identified through database searching and imported into a reference manager. Of these, 50 were selected based on titles and abstracts. After reading the articles in full, 24 were excluded, 10 for adopting a quantitative approach, 10 for focusing on foods and nutrients rather than on home cooking, 3 for being theoretical studies, and 1 for focusing solely on hygiene and sanitation during home meal preparation. The remaining 26 articles reported qualitative data on home cooking and were therefore selected for review. The article selection process is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Collected data were transferred to a Microsoft Word® document. An inductive thematic analysis was carried out according to the six steps proposed by Braun and Clark13: familiarization with data, systematic coding of data, grouping of codes into themes, review and grouping of themes, definition of themes, production of results. The thematic analysis was conducted by one author and reviewed by another.

Results

The 26 articles included in this review were published between 2004 and 2017 (Table 2). Studies were conducted in 12 different countries, most of which (n = 17) have English as one of the official languages. Home cooking was the main topic of research in 14 studies and a secondary finding in 12 studies.

Table 2

We identified three major themes in cooking perception research: meanings and interpretations of the act of cooking, motivations for cooking, and facilitators and barriers to cooking.

Meanings and interpretations of the act of cooking
Four studies analyzed the different interpretations of cooking18, 22-24: two assessed participants’ understanding of the terms “home cooking” 14 and “cooking from scratch” 15 and the other two highlighted differences in planning, organizing, and carrying out cooking tasks16.
In the USA, Wolfson and collaborators14 explored how individuals define home cooking. Definitions varied from “everything from scratch” to “anything prepared at home” (including ready-to-eat foods, frozen meals, etc.). Lavelle et al.15, in a study carried out in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, identified the different meanings of cooking from scratch. Participants’ views ranged from a more traditional definition (using raw ingredients) to a more inclusive meaning (using pre-prepared, frozen foods).
The great variety of perceptions about cooking identified by Wolfson et al.14 and Lavelle et al.15 is corroborated by the results of Gatley17. According to the author, a person’s understanding of cooking depends largely on the context in which she or he is inserted. Gatley17 assessed the cooking behavior and experiences of women and men in France and Great Britain. Respondents were asked to report what types of foods they prepared at home. Almost half of the British respondents reported to use convenience or ready-to-eat foods, whereas French participants reported using pre-prepared items for quick meal preparation; none, however, reported to use convenience foods, with the exception of pizza17.
Halkier10 showed that individuals have different ways of planning and preparing meals. The author assessed the cooking practices of six women, aged 25 to 50 years, living in six different regions of Denmark, and with different family structures and levels of education. Different cooking styles were observed. Cooking required extensive planning for some women but came naturally to others. Ingredients were purchased on the basis of predefined recipes or without planning, for improvisation. Knowledge of cooking was gained as a child/adolescent or later in life. For some women, written recipes were considered essential for meal preparation, and, for others, recipes were sources of inspiration that could be adapted according to personal preferences or availability of ingredients10.

Motivations for cooking
Figure 2 shows the main motivators to home cooking identified in this review. According to reports from the USA18, the UK19, and Ireland15, cooking allows people to have control over their and their families’ eating habits. For instance, parents that cook at home can control the type of foods that their children eat, fulfilling their role as “gatekeepers” of family nutrition20. For Brazilian21, Canadian22, US American23, and British24 individuals, home cooking can be used as a strategy to reduce food costs.
Canadian individuals reported that cooking is a skill that everyone should possess25 and that it can increase self-sufficiency20. Knowing how to cook is perceived as a sign of independence and responsibility for personal food habits20.
Men and women from Canada, the USA, the UK26, France, and China believe that cooking allows individuals to connect with others, strengthen relationships, and express love and care. People often feel pleasure27 in cooking and enjoy the social aspect of the activity28. It is considered a recreational activity that involves friends and family, especially on weekends29. US Americans reported that home cooking is motivated by the pleasure of devoting oneself to the activity30. For men in Sweden and Canada, cooking is a leisure activity that allows for experimentation and expression of creativity31. Furthermore, cooking is an essential activity to meet basic individual and family needs14, 27, 29, 32.
Cooking is seen as a means of maintaining family and cultural traditions as well as creating new ones33. In the USA, some women maintained the cooking habits of their parents, whereas others resented their heritage and sought new cooking experiences34. US American seniors reported that they took pride in preparing dishes that had been passed down through generations35. Danish young adults changed their eating habits and tried to influence those of their parents after developing cooking skills36. In an observational study carried out in Malaysia, Sharif et al.37 found that cooking with family members, especially the mother, strengthens family bonds and allows gaining knowledge about cooking. In the Netherlands, Indian immigrants reported that cooking is a central part of the sense of belonging and helps to deal with being away from home. The use of traditional family ingredients and utensils increased their ties to the family38.

Figure 2

Cooking facilitators and barriers
The facilitators and barriers to cooking reported in the selected studies are summarized in Figure 3. US American39, Canadian20, Danish40, and Irish15 individuals highlighted the importance of having a family member as a cooking role model. Halkier10 observed that some Danish women who had learned to cook in their childhood considered cooking to be a natural and simple task10. In another study in Denmark, participants considered their parents as positive role models regarding meal planning and the use of vegetables and spices36. On the other hand, young adults in the USA attributed their lack of confidence in cooking to the small number of meals prepared at home by their parents during their childhood41.

Figure 3

Knowing how to cook and having confidence in this ability was reported as an important factor for home cooking in the UK29, Ireland15, USA41, and Uruguay42 and, when lacking, as a barrier to cooking43. The ability to plan meals, which includes purchasing and preparing food and cleaning the kitchen environment, is also important for home cooking44. As a strategy to optimize time, US American individuals cook meals in large quantities, use leftovers, and prepare or process ingredients in advance14. In Denmark, individuals chose to outsource the responsibility of planning and purchasing ingredients by acquiring “meal boxes.” Boxes containing the necessary ingredients for a certain dish are delivered at home. Thus, users still cook at home, but with reduced efforts45.
Irish individuals reported the importance of creative inspiration, which may stem from recipes, experiences at restaurants, and grocery shopping15. Among British adults of different income groups, the availability of pre-prepared foods (e.g., frozen fish and vegetables, canned beans, and bagged greens), utensils, and equipment facilitate home cooking46. Because of the lack of time to cook, participants are becoming increasingly dependent on the use of pre-prepared foods to cook at home28.
Lack of time is one of the major barriers to cooking. Family and work commitments and leisure opportunities significantly influence the decision to cook. The accelerated pace of life and other personal demands often do not allow individuals to partake in this activity47.
In studies carried out in Ireland15 and the USA41, the availability and proximity of places to buy convenience foods or eat out were associated with the choice of not cooking at home. Young adults often choose to purchase foods or meals at university canteens and restaurants rather than eating at home because of the practicality and low cost41. For some individuals, cooking is not seen as a priority or necessity48. In Uruguay, individuals reported that they did not like to cook and, therefore, invested little time on cooking from scratch. Some reported that, although they enjoyed cooking, they felt overwhelmed by having to cook every day42.
The high costs of raw foods, such as fruits, vegetables, and meat, is a barrier to preparing meals at home. Irish and US American individuals prefer buying cheaper, processed foods as opposed to raw foods49.
Living arrangements influence the choice of cooking at home. Elderly British women50 and British27 and US American14 adults reported that living alone discouraged home cooking. On the other hand28, living alone was considered a stimulus to develop the habit of cooking by young British individuals.

Discussion

This review presents the point of view of individuals from different backgrounds about aspects related to cooking at home. We observed a multiplicity of perceptions about home cooking and meal planning. For some individuals, home cooking includes the use of raw and/or minimally processed ingredients, whereas, for others, cooking can be carried out using highly- or ultra-processed foods51. These results indicate that individuals have different understandings about what it means to cook. The distinction between high-complexity and low-complexity cooking tasks and cooking from raw and pre-prepared foods is not always clear52.
Cognitive, practical, social, and emotional factors were among the main motivators to cooking. Therefore, strategies aimed at encouraging home cooking should take into account not only economic and cognitive motivations but also the affective components of cooking, for instance, by promoting cooking as a form of leisure and creativity expression.
Six facilitators and six barriers to cooking were identified, some of which were considered ambivalent, such as the presence or absence of a cooking role model in the family, confidence, and cooking skills. The results demonstrate the importance of having contact with people who cook and developing confidence and cooking skills. Further studies should seek to understand how cooking skills are acquired and how other factors, such as creative inspiration for cooking and meal planning, influence the choice of cooking at home. Broader concepts of cooking skills that go beyond technical and mechanical skills may need to be adopted53. Living alone was considered both a barrier and a facilitator to cooking. More information is needed to understand the motivations for cooking of individuals who live alone.
Lack of time and interest were major barriers. The feeling of time pressure leads individuals to dedicate less time to preparing and consuming meals54 and may affect their interest in cooking. Individuals who enjoy cooking do not perceive lack of time as a barrier48.
The cost of raw foods has made individuals change which types of ingredients they purchase, evidence of the impact of economic factors on food choices55. Overall, these results show that the determinants of home cooking are complex and go beyond the development of cooking skills56.
The availability of pre-prepared foods contributes to home cooking. Pre-prepared foods can be classified as either minimally processed foods (e.g., canned peeled tomatoes) or ultra-processed foods (e.g., tomato sauce containing corn starch and food additives). The Food Guide for the Brazilian Population4 states that raw and minimally processed foods are part of a healthy diet but ultra-processed foods should be avoided. The degree of processing can only be determined by analyzing the ingredients list. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that consumers be able to understand food labels and have access to clear and reliable information, thereby allowing them to make informed food choices57.
Because the availability of places to eat out and purchase convenience foods affects the choice of cooking at home, meal nutritional quality should be constantly monitored in food establishments. Consumers must have access to qualitative food information to aid in their away-from-home food choices58.
This review included studies carried out at different times and regions of the globe and with diverse populations. Thus, the results are influenced by cultural, social, and historical factors. It was not the objective to analyze such differences, which may be regarded as a limitation of this review.
Most studies were conducted in English-speaking countries that share historical, political, and cultural characteristics. More information is needed on other populations, as cooking is a cultural practice and is influenced by the presence of multinational food industries and fast-food chains14, 59, 60. The predominance of articles published in English-speaking countries may be related to the importance of the English language to the dissemination of scientific research. As the terms used to search the databases were in Portuguese or English, it is likely that studies published in French, Italian, or Spanish without an English or Portuguese abstract were not identified.
The use of different terms helped to broaden the literature search. Qualitative research typically adopts a variety of concepts and terms to refer to a given topic. The goal was to include studies with different objectives and gain a global view of cooking perceptions. In many studies, home cooking was not the primary focus. Articles were read in full to identify, even when presented as secondary findings, aspects related to perceptions of cooking.
Future studies should aim to understand how the habit of cooking develops over time and what motivates individuals who have time constraints or live alone to prepare their meals at home. Interventions and strategies aimed at promoting home cooking can address not only cognitive and practical factors but also affective and emotional ones. A broader view of home cooking should be adopted, taking into account the importance of planning meals and cooking skills, the combined use of raw and pre-prepared foods, and the need for creative inspiration for cooking. Strategies that consider the cost of raw foods, lack of time and interest, and meal planning may be effective in stimulating participants to develop healthy cooking habits.

Contributions
ACM contributed to the conception and design of the study, collected and analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. MD contributed to the study conception and design. GMRF contributed to the study design, data collection and analysis, and critical review of the manuscript.


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