Artigos

INTRODUCTION
Latina mothers exhibit higher rates of anxiety compared to mothers from other racial and ethnic groups 1,2. Reported prevalence of anxiety among this population ranges from 13.6% to 40%, depending on factors such as assessment timing, measurement tools, and sociodemographic characteristics 1,3-5. Maternal anxiety during pregnancy represents a critical public health concern due to its potential impact on both maternal well-being and child outcomes 6,7. For mothers, the treatment of mental disorders during pregnancy requires careful clinical management, as psychotropic drugs can cross the placental barrier to varying degrees, resulting in fetal exposure 8. For children, poor maternal mental health has been associated with adverse outcomes, contributing to issues such as childhood obesity 9, insecure attachment 10, and externalizing behavior problems in preschool-aged children 11. These associations underscore the need to investigate the specific implications of maternal anxiety on early child development within Latina populations, where socioeconomic and cultural factors may exacerbate vulnerability.
Latina mothers are disproportionately affected by anxiety symptoms, disorders, and other perinatal mental health concerns 6,12. These vulnerabilities are compounded by health disparities such as higher rates of food insecurity and inequitable prenatal care access during pregnancy 2,13. When anxiety during pregnancy remains unrecognized and untreated, it often persists into the postpartum period 1. Additionally, many Latinas normalize their anxiety as a routine aspect of motherhood, reducing their likelihood of disclosing symptoms or seeking mental health services 14,15. Elevated perinatal anxiety in mothers has been associated with increased parenting stress and less responsive caregiving, which in turn contribute to higher levels of emotional and behavioral problems in young children 16.
High levels of stress and anxiety during the first trimester are associated with lower gestational weight gain, increasing the likelihood of infants being born small for their gestational age 17. These infants face a greater risk of impaired psychomotor development, lower intelligence quotient, reduced executive functioning skills, and poorer performance on neurological assessments by preschool age 18. These findings highlight the significant and lasting impact of maternal mental health on a child’s overall health and developmental trajectory.
Evidence shows an inverse relationship between depression in Latina mothers and their children's socioemotional development 19. However, the impact of anxiety among Latina mothers on child development remains largely understudied. Understanding the relationship between maternal anxiety and early child development is essential for informing interventions and policies that promote optimal health outcomes for both mothers and children, this scoping review aims to map literature on maternal anxiety and child development among Latino populations across the Americas across North and South America, including the Caribbean. By identifying key patterns, gaps, and contextual factors, this review aims to inform culturally responsive strategies to support maternal mental health and improve developmental trajectories in this historically underserved group.

METHODS
This scoping review was conducted following the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology for scoping reviews 20 and aligned with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) 21. The review adhered to an a priori protocol 22 and was registered in the Open Science Framework (OSF), accessible at https://osf.io/frg7s/. Ethical approval was not required because data was synthesized from previously published studies.
Review Question
How does maternal anxiety in Latina populations affect early child development?
Participants
Studies examining only Latina mothers of any age experiencing anxiety were included. The term Latina refers to individuals who self-identify as women of Latin American origin or descent—including, but not limited to, those from Mexico, Central America, South America, and the Spanish-speaking Caribbean—who are either pregnant or parenting a child.
Concept
Maternal anxiety was defined as self-reported or clinically diagnosed symptoms using any validated measurement tool. Early child development outcomes included socioemotional, cognitive, language, fine motor, and gross motor development.
Context
Studies conducted within the Americas, including North America, the Caribbean, Central America, and South America, were included. Since Spanish is the predominant language in Latin America, and the reviewers are fluent in English, Spanish, and Portuguese, literature in these languages was considered.
Types of Sources
This review included quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods studies, as well as systematic reviews, expert opinions, and text-based analyses relevant to maternal anxiety and early child development in Latina populations.
Search Strategy
The search strategy was developed with the assistance of a research librarian and aimed to identify both published and unpublished primary studies, reviews, and grey literature. A preliminary search of PubMed, CINAHL, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and JBI Evidence Synthesis confirmed that no current or in-progress scoping reviews exist on maternal anxiety and early child development in Latina populations.
An initial limited search of PubMed and CINAHL was conducted to identify relevant articles on Latina maternal anxiety and early child development. The keywords, index terms, and text words from titles and abstracts of relevant studies were used to refine the full search strategy. This strategy was then adapted for each database, and a comprehensive second search was conducted across PubMed, CINAHL, APA PsycINFO, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The full search strategies are provided in Table 1.
Studies published in English, Spanish, and Portuguese were included, with no date restrictions to ensure a comprehensive overview of the available research. We completed the search on May 11, 2025.
Table 1.
Study/Source of Evidence Selection
Following the search, all identified records were collated and uploaded into Rayyan 23, and duplicates were removed. Titles and abstracts were screened for assessment against the inclusion criteria for the review. Potentially relevant papers were retrieved in full, and their citation details were imported into Rayyan 23. Full-text studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded. Any disagreements that arose between the reviewers were resolved through discussion.
Data Extraction
Data were extracted from papers included in the scoping review by using a data extraction tool developed by the reviewers 22. The data extracted includes specific details about the aims of the study, the study methods, information on the participants, study outcomes, any key findings, any stressors the participants experience, and specific information about any measurement tools used to measure anxiety and child development. Disputes that emerged during the review process were resolved collaboratively through discussion.
Data analysis and presentation
For our scoping review, we developed a comprehensive data extraction table to synthesize findings across the selected studies. The table includes detailed information on each source, such as citation, year of publication, country of origin, language, sample size, and study design. We also recorded the methods of analysis, covariates controlled for, and the prevalence and measurement of maternal anxiety, including tools used (e.g., State-Trait Anxiety Inventory - STAI, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale - EPDS) and reported rates. Child development measures were documented by domain (e.g., socioemotional, cognitive, language) and assessment tools (e.g., Ages and Stages Questionnaire - ASQ, Bayley Scales). Key outcomes and findings were summarized, highlighting associations between maternal anxiety and child developmental outcomes. This structured approach allowed us to compare studies, identify patterns and gaps, and assess the strength of evidence across diverse contexts.

RESULTS
Study inclusion
In this scoping review, the initial search yielded 610 studies, of which 121 were identified as duplicates and removed. The titles and abstracts of the remaining 489 studies were screened, resulting in the exclusion of 455 records that did not meet the eligibility criteria. A full-text review was conducted for 34 studies to assess their eligibility. Twelve studies were excluded because anxiety was not analyzed independently from other mental health disorders. Six studies were excluded due to samples not being solely focused on Latina mothers. Two studies were excluded for examining the wrong population, and two others were excluded for not reporting sample ethnicity data. Two additional studies were excluded for focusing on maternal mental health factors unrelated to anxiety. One study was excluded for not evaluating child development. Ultimately, nine studies met the inclusion criteria and were selected for analysis (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Study Characteristics
Of the nine studies included in this scoping review, one was conducted in Argentina, one in Chile, and seven in Brazil. Sample sizes ranged from 20 to 992 mother–child dyads, with publication dates spanning from 2008 to 2025. Four studies focused on the effects of maternal anxiety in adolescent mothers. One study examined the impact of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, another explored the mediating role of anxiety in the relationship between food insecurity and early child development, and one investigated maternal self-efficacy in relation to infant socioemotional development. Additionally, two studies focused specifically on preterm infant development.
Anxiety was measured using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) in two studies, the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI Plus) in three studies, the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) in one study, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) in one study, the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A) in one study, and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) in one study. Seven studies assessed anxiety exclusively during the postpartum period, while two studies evaluated anxiety during both the prenatal and postnatal periods; none assessed anxiety solely during pregnancy.
Child development was assessed across multiple domains, cognitive, language, motor, and socioemotional, using a variety of tools at different time points. Socioemotional development was assessed in four studies, cognitive development was evaluated in five studies, language development was examined in four studies, and six studies assessed motor development. The Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Third Edition (BSID-III) was the most commonly used tool, appearing in three studies to assess socioemotional, cognitive, language, and/or motor development. Only one study assessed all four developmental domains, using the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) developmental milestones checklist. The BSID-II was used in one study to evaluate cognitive and motor development. The Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) appeared in two studies to assess motor development, and one of these also included the Visuomotor Behavior Assessment Guide. Two studies focused solely on socioemotional development, each used one of the following: Ages & Stages: Socioemotional (ASQ: SE), or the ASQ: SE, Second Edition (ASQ: SE2).
Review findings
We grouped the main findings of the selected studies into five categories based on the domains of child development that may be affected by maternal anxiety: 1) Maternal anxiety and socioemotional development; 2) Maternal anxiety and cognitive development; 3) Maternal anxiety and language development; 4) Maternal anxiety and motor development; and, 5) Maternal Anxiety as a Mediator. The selected studies are described in Table 2.
Maternal anxiety and socioemotional development
Findings from three studies on the effects of maternal anxiety in Latinas on socioemotional development were mixed. Researchers examined the influence of maternal anxiety and experiences due to the COVID-19 pandemic on child socioemotional development at six months 24. Their findings indicate that lower socioemotional development outcomes were significantly associated with the presence of prenatal anxiety during the second and third trimesters, as well as postnatal anxiety 24. Another study found that socioemotional development is influenced by the fluctuations in the presence or absence of maternal anxiety disorders across different time periods 25. The authors suggested that inconsistent anxious behavior can confuse children; however, multivariate analysis revealed no direct relationship between maternal anxiety and socioemotional outcomes 25. Similarly, a third study found no significant association between maternal anxiety and child socioemotional development 7.
Maternal anxiety and cognitive development
Five studies examined the effects of maternal anxiety in Latinas on cognitive development and had generally consistent findings. One study identified a direct association between maternal anxiety disorders in the postpartum period and lower cognitive development outcomes in children aged two to three years 25. In a NICU-based study, researchers assessed cognitive development in preterm infants and reported that while 75% of infants displayed normal cognitive functioning at 12 months corrected chronological age, maternal anxiety decreased significantly a year after the infant's discharge 26. The authors hypothesized that the reduction in anxiety one year after the baby's discharge from the hospital may serve as a protective mechanism, promoting the baby's cognitive development. Another study found that adolescent mothers with social anxiety disorder (SAD) were significantly more likely to have children with poorer cognitive development outcomes compared to mothers without SAD 27. Similarly, a fourth study examined the effects of maternal anxiety on infants born to low-income adolescent mothers and reported that weaker alpha-range network connectivity, due to maternal anxiety, correlated with lower cognitive development outcomes 28. However, the study was unable to establish the direction of associations. Finally, a fifth study found that children of mothers with moderate anxiety symptoms had a 20% increased risk of scoring lower on cognitive development measures 7.
Maternal anxiety and language development
Four studies explored the relationship between Latina maternal anxiety and language development, yielding mixed findings. One study observed that maternal anxiety disorders during the postpartum period influenced language development; however, after multivariate analysis, no direct relationship was identified 25. The authors noted that cognitive and language development are closely linked and suggested that anxious mothers may introduce biases when answering BSID-III assessments 25. Another study found that 30-month-old children of adolescent mothers with SAD demonstrated poorer language development compared to children of mothers without SAD 27. Similarly, a third study found that children of mothers with moderate anxiety symptoms had a 38% increased risk of lower language development scores, while those of mothers with severe anxiety symptoms had a 51% increased risk, suggesting a dose-response association 7. In contrast, a fourth study found no significant associations between maternal anxiety and language development in six-month-old infants 28.
Maternal anxiety and motor development
Six studies examined the relationship between maternal anxiety in Latinas and children's motor development, with findings generally indicating a negative association. One study found that 45% of preterm infants at 12 months of corrected chronological age exhibited delays in motor development 26. The authors hypothesized that maternal anxiety may lead to overprotective behaviors, restricting opportunities for infants to explore and develop motor skills 26. Supporting this, another study found that maternal anxiety was associated with lower motor development outcomes at four months of age 29. The authors reported that maternal anxiety in the postpartum period was more likely to impact motor development 25. However, after multivariate analysis, there was no direct relationship 25. Another study also did not observe any associations between maternal anxiety and motor development 28. Similarly, other studies did not observe significant relationships between maternal anxiety and motor development, including one that examined outcomes in 24-month-old infants and another that assessed visual fixation scores in one-month-old infants 7,30.
Maternal Anxiety as a Mediator
Only one study identified maternal anxiety as a mediating factor in child development. The study explored the relationship between maternal self-efficacy and infant socioemotional development 31. The authors proposed that maternal anxiety mediates this association, as it was negatively correlated with maternal self-efficacy, which in turn is associated with infant socioemotional development 31.
Table 2.

DISCUSSION
This scoping review examined the effects of maternal anxiety on early childhood development in Latina mothers. A total of nine studies, encompassing 2,478 mother-child dyads, were included based on their eligibility. While there are some inconsistencies across the studies, the overall evidence suggests that Latina maternal anxiety has a significant impact on early childhood development outcomes. Maternal anxiety was found to have direct and indirect impacts on socioemotional, cognitive, language, and motor development. In particular, maternal anxiety was associated with lower socioemotional development outcomes in children, indicating that children of anxious mothers may be at increased risk for emotional and behavioral difficulties. Similarly, anxiety was linked to poorer cognitive and language development outcomes, suggesting that maternal mental health may affect children's ability to process, communicate, and engage with their environment effectively. Additionally, motor development was also negatively impacted by maternal anxiety, with some studies suggesting that restrictive parenting behaviors exhibited by anxious mothers resulted in impaired motor performance.
Evidence from the review points to a consistent association between maternal anxiety in Latina mothers and diminished socioemotional development in their children. These findings highlight the importance of addressing maternal mental health to support positive developmental trajectories in this population. Cross-cultural studies have revealed a link between maternal anxiety and poorer socioemotional development. In Canada, mothers with intermittent or chronic depression and anxiety face a higher risk of poor child development outcomes compared to those experiencing depression or anxiety at a single point in time, suggesting that prolonged comorbidity can have profound effects 32. A U.S. study conducted in a predominantly White population (53.5%), with 16% Hispanic mothers, found that pregnancy-related anxiety, but not general anxiety, was significantly associated to reduced infant total looking time to faces, which is a key predictor of lower socioemotional development 33. Similarly, Dutch mothers with postpartum anxiety had a small but significant negative effect on socioemotional development 34. Parenting programs may help mitigate the effects of maternal anxiety on child development. Pakistani mothers participating in a parenting program called Learning through Play Plus (LTP+) experienced reduced anxiety and depression symptoms compared to a control group 35. Additionally, the LTP+ group showed improved child social and motor development outcomes at six months 35. Collectively, these findings highlight the global relevance of maternal anxiety as a risk factor for socioemotional delays and emphasize the potential of culturally tailored parenting interventions to support both maternal mental health and early child development.
In addition, our study found that anxiety was associated with poorer cognitive outcomes in children, reinforcing evidence that maternal mental health plays a critical role in early developmental trajectories. Consistent with our findings, a meta-analysis of studies conducted in developed countries concluded that prenatal anxiety and stress are linked to lower general intellectual skills in children 36. Prenatal anxiety and depression symptoms in Singaporean mothers were associated with lower cognitive outcomes at 54 months 37. Similarly, consistent with other studies, a study conducted in Pakistan found that a Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) intervention called Happy Mother – Healthy Baby for pregnant women with anxiety symptoms was significantly associated with improved infant cognitive development outcomes 38. Additionally, a cohort in South Africa found that children had worse socioemotional and cognitive outcomes when their mothers experienced both depression and trait anxiety, highlighting the compounding effects of comorbid maternal mental health conditions on multiple developmental domains 39. These findings emphasize the importance of early, culturally responsive interventions that address maternal anxiety, not only to improve maternal well-being but also to promote optimal cognitive and socioemotional development in children, particularly in underserved populations where the burden of maternal mental health conditions may be amplified.
Recent research on maternal anxiety and language development has yielded mixed findings. In Australia, mothers with prenatal and postnatal anxiety at eight weeks were negatively associated with language development 40. Similarly, in Denver, United States, maternal anxiety was linked to lower parent-reported child language production scores, suggesting that maternal anxiety may either hinder language development or affect mothers’ ability to assess their child’s progress accurately 41. In contrast, another Australian study found no direct association between maternal anxiety and language development 42. Instead, it highlighted that positive maternal-infant interactions were linked to better language outcomes, emphasizing the role of maternal engagement despite the presence of anxiety 42. These findings suggest that while maternal anxiety may negatively impact language development in some cases, the quality of mother–child interactions may serve as a protective factor. This underscores the importance of considering both maternal mental health and the caregiving environment when examining early language outcomes. Future studies should explore how maternal anxiety interacts with environmental stimulation, parenting practices, and access to language-rich settings to influence early communication development.
This review identified maternal anxiety as a mediator for child development. A study conducted in England found that maternal mental health mediates the relationship between socioeconomic status and children’s cognitive development 43. The authors suggested that when mothers experience good mental health, they are more likely to engage in positive parenting behaviors, which can buffer the negative effects of socioeconomic disadvantage and support stronger cognitive outcomes 43. Similarly, a study in Iran found that maternal anxiety had both direct and indirect effects on maternal involvement and early child development 44. These findings suggest that maternal anxiety may reduce a mother’s ability to engage in stimulating interactions that are essential for fostering growth in early childhood 44. Research highlights the importance of addressing maternal mental health as part of early interventions to promote child development.
While existing research provides valuable insights, important gaps remain in understanding how maternal anxiety affects early child development in Latina mothers. Notably, no studies have examined the role of acculturation, despite its potential impact on maternal stress and anxiety. Exploring this relationship could guide the development of culturally relevant interventions that better support Latina mothers and promote healthy child development 44,46. Clinically, integrating mental health screenings into routine child wellness visits is crucial, as maternal mental health is closely linked to child outcomes 47. Early identification and intervention can help reduce negative effects on both mother and child. Nurses play a key role in recognizing mental health concerns and connecting mothers with appropriate resources, including community programs, online support, and counseling services 48. Embedding mental health care into pediatric visits encourages a more holistic approach to family well-being and helps normalize mental health support 49. Future research and clinical efforts must prioritize culturally responsive strategies tailored to the unique experiences of Latina mothers.
This study faced limitations. One key issue was the inconsistency in anxiety measurement tools across the included studies. While the MINI Plus is a structured clinical interview administered by trained professionals to diagnose anxiety disorders, the BAI and STAI are self-reported instruments that assess symptom severity and distinguish between state and trait anxiety, respectively. These methodological differences may limit the comparability of findings across studies. Another important limitation is the underrepresentation of Latina mothers from diverse Latin American countries. Cultural differences in mental health experiences and parenting practices may influence child development outcomes, yet many studies, particularly those conducted in the U.S. and Canada, did not disaggregate data by ethnicity or include adequate numbers of Latino participants, reducing the generalizability of results. Additionally, three studies focused on adolescent mothers, whose unique developmental stage, combined with the hormonal changes of both adolescence and pregnancy, may influence the relationship between maternal anxiety and child development. This highlights the importance of further research examining the role of maternal age in shaping these associations.

CONCLUSION
This is the first scoping review to focus solely on maternal anxiety and early child development in Latinas. The review examined findings across studies that highlighted the significant impact of maternal anxiety on child and infant outcomes, particularly in socioemotional, cognitive, language, and motor development. Only nine studies were found to focus on Latina maternal anxiety and their child’s early development, highlighting the need for more research in this field. The findings suggest that socioemotional and cognitive development are most sensitive to maternal anxiety; however, inconsistencies across studies make it challenging to compare the studies directly. Understanding the complex relationship between maternal anxiety and early childhood development is crucial for the development of targeted, effective interventions. It is equally important to consider cultural factors that may influence the experience and expression of anxiety among Latina mothers. Culturally tailored approaches are necessary to better support Latina mothers, and their children, as cultural norms and values may shape how anxiety is experienced and addressed within this community. Further research is needed to untangle these complexities and explore how different forms of anxiety, as well as their timing, may affect the trajectory of early childhood development in Latina populations.

Data availability statement

The sources of the data used in the research are indicated in the body of the article.


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